Full Project - EFFECT OF LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS ON CHEMISTRY STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

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Full Project – EFFECT OF LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS ON CHEMISTRY STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

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CHAPTTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

Many chemistry teachers regard practical chemistry as very important for various reasons which include concept learning, motivation and the development of skills and appropriate scientific attitudes. This is in line with the objectives of chemistry education (Bradley, 1999; National Education Council, 2002). These objectives may not have been achieved because of students’ aversion for chemistry laboratory. The aversion for chemistry laboratory activities could have been emanated from the phobia of acids and bases domiciled in the chemistry laboratory, which are fundamental compounds used in quantitative and qualitative analysis. Chemistry is essentially a practical oriented subject which demands proper exhibition of science process skills (practical skill) for effective interpretation of existing phenomena (Njelita, 2008).

It is argued that laboratory experiences are a worthwhile aspect of science education where drilling and practicing is applied to train students to be more scientifically inclined and pass their practical examination (Morgil, Gungor & Secken, 2009). Meanwhile, the laboratory has value for nurturing positive students’ attitudes and providing avenue to develop and demonstrate their practical skills in practical chemistry works. Novak (1984) observed that it appears that students fare no better with a laboratory experience than without one in developing understanding of chemistry. Ali (1996) noted that there is no best method but that effective science teaching should be laboratory centred, activity-oriented rather than text or lecture centred which characterize the Nigerian schools. Various instructional methods, such as guided discovery and demonstration instructional methods that could share features with laboratory experiences could be successful in attaining numerous vital educational goals. In view of this, Hofstein and Lunetta (2004) observed that these goals are arousing and maintaining the interest of students, developing higher-level thinking skills, promoting the acquisition of science process skills. Therefore, in the context of this study, considering laboratory experiences are apposite and appropriate to search for instructional methods or modification of existing ones which can promote the objectives of education and investigate their effects, on students’ learning outcomes.

Several works (Hofstein and Lunetta, 2004; Mamlok-Naaaman, 2007 and Lagarowitz and Tamir, 1994) have shown that students enrollment in the sciences is declining gradually over the years in high schools. It is, therefore, the thinking of the researcher that students are running away from practical chemistry, because practical chemistry is done in the laboratory which they already consider as a dangerous place since it contains acids and bases which they are afraid of. Consequently, this fear that resulted from the misconceptions has affected students’ attitudes, enrollment, class attendance, motivation and performance. This has practically deadened students drive, enthusiasm, curiosity and occasioned lost of interest in learning practical chemistry. Indeed, this has tremendously affected students’ academic achievement in practical chemistry in SSCE. Attitudes towards chemistry in this context, denotes interests or feelings towards studying practical chemistry. Students’ beliefs and attitudes have the potential to either facilitate or inhibit learning (Yara, 2009). The position of Yara, absolutely corroborates the view and cry of the researcher that the misconceptions of the students about the laboratory (acids and bases) have affected their attitudes which has eventually occasioned inhibition in learning.

Research evidence in Nigeria (WAEC chief Examinations’ report, 2000-2007) underscores low science (especially Chemistry) attainment of secondary school students. This situation is amplified by the few number of students pursuing science related courses in higher educational institutions compared with the art and social sciences students, despite the colossal effort made by the government aimed at improving the study of science, it is sad to observe that students achievement in chemistry continue to be low according to the annual report on the West African Examination Council (WAEC) for Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination in chemistry.

Okegbile (2007) described an academic achievement as a general pedagogical terminology used while determining learners’ success in formal education which is measured through reports, examinations, researches and rating with numerous extraneous factors or variables exerting influences. Achievement results revealed the level of learners’ performance and prove their capacities. However, the underachievement is characterized by the results of schools whose educational attainment falls below appreciable level. It could also be as a result of learners performance that is below their capacities, which is in consonance with the view of Vamadevappa (2002) and Odili (2004) that underachievement comes from a student’s scholastic performance that is below his or her ability level. The researchers now puts up some of the factors that are likely attributed to the wrong perceptions that students have created against chemistry laboratory practical work which include: student carelessness, poor study habits, lack of motivation, inappropriate teaching methods, students’ behaviour and peer group influence, poor home background or environment, unqualified teacher, instructional and evaluation process that failed to recognize learners’ individual differences.

The effects of students mass failure in public examinations is worrisome and poses a great question to what is happening at the classroom level in the senior secondary schools in Nigeria today (Okpala, 2009). This culminates to provoking questions such as: are there enough learning facilities? Are the teachers motivated to work? Are the students ready to learn? And even, at our tertiary institutions of learning, the result is not different, in chemistry performance as it has been poor and deplorable asserted by Jimoh (2004) and Njoku (2007). Consequently, this has further corroborated, the early reports given by the WAEC Chief examiners’ especially on that of 2006 report that gave a clear picture of massive failure that have been recorded over the years. Especially, in that particular year (2006) chemistry result and some other sciences due to wrong knowledge and misconceptions in the calculation aspect of chemistry especially the overwhelming poor experimental performance that worsen the whole matter. Even the finding of Nwagbo (2001) revealed that some science teachers find it difficult to teach some instructional contents due to their personal incompetence, poor teaching methods adopted by the teachers, limited knowledge in the use of available apparatus in the laboratory, defective monitoring and feedback mechanism which are likely to create a big pitfall to aforementioned mass failure ever recorded in chemistry examination.

Meanwhile, Olatoye (2008) then opined that one of the likely reasons for the poor academic performances of students in chemistry might have been poor laboratory instructional methods that are characterized by traditional modes of instruction being adopted by the chemistry teacher. To this end, Derek (2007) commented that learning is not bound to any place or time but new knowledge, skills and concepts can be learned through experience which are well organized and arranged within individual’s existing cognitive structures that recognizes the learners freedom of choices and integrity. On this ground, it is clear that there is the need to seek for effective methods of teaching practical chemistry in the laboratory. Such teaching methods like guided discovery and demonstration that could bring in effectiveness in the teaching of chemistry should be employed. Also, adequate understanding of practical chemistry concepts, skills and positive attitudes towards practical chemistry should be taught and imbibed. Indeed, this consistent and persistent low achievement in sciences especially in chemistry subject conspicuously indicates that science education in Nigeria is greatly unsatisfactory. This is obviously clear that the prospect of Nigeria to be scientifically and technologically developed in the nearest future is not visible, especially, considering the contribution of chemistry to societal growth.

According to Eskilsson (2008), scientific achievement can only be realized via appropriate teaching and learning of sciences in our school system. This can be achieved through improved curriculum content, appropriate laboratory instructional materials, qualified and committed teachers that have good personality, high intelligence quotient, knowledge of subject matter, experience, skillful and good command of the subject, class and laboratory management skills with a good command of relevant instructional methods. Okebukola (2003) attributed poor achievement in chemistry to misconceptions of chemistry concepts on the part of students and teachers, inadequate laboratory facilities, inefficient and non-devoted science teachers and lack of motivations.

Guided discovery method is a teaching method in which the principal content of what is to be learned is not given but must be discovered by the learners. It has been observed that science teacher’s play important role in the implementation of discovery method, which faces many difficulties especially during the implementation process. Cheung (2007) therefore, listed some of these obstacles often experienced during the implementation of guided discovery method in a study with chemistry teachers. They are: crowded classes, insufficient time, scarcity of effective research materials, teacher’s beliefs, pedagogical problems, management problems, security issues, scarcity of teaching materials, fear of assessment, fear of encouraging students to misunderstanding, students’ complaints etc. The reason for this is the lack of methodological knowledge as well as scientific content (Shedletzky and Zion, 2005). Teachers, beside academic support, need to be informed about learning and teaching processes through research (Lim, 2004) and the usage of guided discovery method (Cheung, 2007) in order to resolve teachers’ lack of knowledge according to social constructivist approach of learning. It is the researcher’s claim that scientific teaching stands somewhere between the boundaries of the lecture method, in which certain answers known by the teachers are transferred to the learners and the guided discovery method, in which learners construct their own problems and problem solutions.

Moreover, Cheung (2007) is of the opinion that guided discovery method is an approach to enquiry. On the other hand the teacher provides illustrative materials for students to study on their own. Leading questions are then asked by the teacher to enable students think and provide conclusions through the adoption of the processes of sciences. It is deemed that when the student is given the free hand to discover relationships and methods of solutions by himself/herself, the learner makes generalizations and draw conclusions from them. In this regard the learner may be well disposed to make broader applications of what has been learned, therefore, an approach of instructions which would permit the students to become ‘dynamic’ in the learning condition may likely have effect with regards to transfer. Kai and Krajcik, (2006) argued that guided discovery environments can be best facilitated focusing on learning the development of certain scientific concepts, whereas the learners in the other hands are of teachers’ guidance which focus their attention onto the content, and having less to apt means of discovering scientific thinking processes and gaining experience.

It is the intention of the researcher that activity-based science will allow learners to explore their environment and discover nature. It should be borne in our minds that as the teacher fruitfully take on guided discovery method; learners will be expected to carry out some mental processes such as observing, classifying, measuring, predicting, inferring and hypothesizing. It is on this premise that a lot of enquiry predominates in the laboratory with the teacher acting as an organizer, a facilitator and motivator, moving from one point to another to guide the learning of students and aid them to obviate difficulties as observed by Etuk (2004). In the light of this, the teacher plays the role of a resource person who guides the learners to sources of information. The most important feature of this method is to enable both teachers and learners to be researchers, idea propagators and problem solvers. Furthermore, it has some positive influence on students’ academic achievement by making such students proactive, developing their understandings, improving their research skills and understanding of the nature of the science (Wallace and Kang, 2004 & Blonder, Naaman and Hofstein, 2008).

Therefore, it is on this note that it becomes necessary to find out if guided discovery learning method could unveil the conceptual misconceptions among students. And eventually normalize their negative attitude by reawakening their lost interest in practical chemistry. Discovery method, though old, but when employed could demystify the misconceptions of students as they may discover for themselves that acids are also present in most of the foods we eat, including fruits and not only found in the laboratory. They will discover also, that acids become dangerous only when mishandled and mismanaged. This instructional method could help learners to develop their individual responsibility, cognitive methods, report making, problem solving and understanding skills.

Demonstration as a teaching method is an instructional method that has its link between explanation and the practice where the teacher demonstrates an experimental activity in a functional chemistry laboratory while learners watch (Blair, Schwartz, Biswas and Leelawong, 2007). The teacher demonstrates a procedure with clarifications where necessary and then learners observe. Etuk (2004) defined demonstration as a process whereby a person does something in the presence of others in order to show them how to do it or illustrate a principle to science classes. Etuk, further observed that demonstration method is one of the best methods for teaching sciences as it heightens the development of skills and adeptness in carrying out some distinctive experiments. Prior to the demonstration, the teacher prepares the class for the purpose of the demonstration and elucidates the step-by-step procedures that will be involved.

Subsequently, the teacher prudently and conscientiously carries out the demonstration and explains each step involved. The teacher may repeat the demonstration activity if it seems a complex one. For example, how to change a tire and also how to make a tie knot. It is a way of teaching good practices, and this method allows the teacher to show the results that can be obtained from experimenting with objects and other materials. It could be demonstrated, for example, what happens to a white cloth when blue dye is added to water. Therefore, this method could be a veritable tool to conquer or overcome misconceptions, negative attitudes and improve academic achievement in the senior secondary schools.

Demonstration method has been proved to be effective with both large and small groups. It depicts that the greater the measure of participation and sensory involvement by the learner, the more effective learning will be. It is with this intention that teachers should allow students to employ different senses by permitting them to see, hear and perhaps experience as well as arouse their interest in the doing of chemistry through the effective laboratory instructional method. However, if these precautionary measures are not considered, demonstration as a strategy can obstruct students’ involvement. Research has found that diverse students benefit immensely when they have the opportunity to interact with materials, participate in activities, and manipulate objects and equipment (Carrier, 2005; Prpric and Hadgraft, 2009). Through laboratories, demonstrations, educational games, simulations, field trips, and other interesting activities, students in secondary school classes have many opportunities to be engaged actively in the learning process (Blair, Schwartz, Biswas, and Leelawong, 2007).

Prpric and Hadgraft, (2009) addressed the key ingredients of demonstration method and postulated that it should not be confused with designed projects or case studies where focus is predominantly on the application of existing knowledge and integration of what is already known. If demonstration method goes beyond this, students will encounter some concepts for the first time and therefore they need methods for acquiring this new knowledge (Prpric and Hadgraft, 2009). The reasons for using this method of instruction are stated below: the students are acquainted with apparatus and are made to understand its uses and limitations, the students are emboldened to take on by imitation the appropriate method to be used and the apparatus, this method indeed saves time, demonstration method also prunes down the number of teaching staff required and this method affords the teacher the opportunity to demonstrate an experiment which would have been dangerous, complicated and expensive.

Demonstration method could unfold to the students their misconceptions when appropriately employed; it could have the capacity to demystify the students’ misconceptions. This is in line with the findings of Ryan, Rein and Epstein (2006). This depicts the true picture of demonstration method because it allows the learners to observe their teacher demonstrating with equipment and apparatus that contain acids and bases; through which they will be opportune to observe their teacher handling and managing acids and bases in the process of demonstration. This might bring about positive attitude and reawaken their lost interest. Thereby in turn, create huge academic achievement in practical chemistry (acids and bases).

Lecture method is the traditional didactic strategy of teaching. It is an instructional method that requires one person, usually a teacher who presents his/her information on a given subject to the students (learners). Lecture method is also known as verbal exposition and test-book method. In this method the teacher is the principal actor, because he/she (teacher) dominates and talks most of the time. This method is indeed a one-way traffic and teacher- centered. The student’s roles are passive as they are to listen while the teacher gives the expected information verbally from any means. Students are only required to memorize and regurgitates. Gbamanja (1991) stated that the method is widely used in secondary schools, even when facts are needed for rigorous external examinations.

Misconceptions: are the learners’ mental models (internal representations of objects, events and processes learners construct in order to predict and explain phenomena) into the consensus models (the expressed representations used by the scientific community) (Johnson, 1998; Collins & Gentner, 1998). Also, misconceptions, otherwise known as alternative conceptions are conceptual ideas and thinking which are in contradictions with those of the scientific community. Conceptually, misconceptions are naive mental models which are not in agreement with the consensus models.

Previous studies have revealed that students hold misconceptions in chemistry (Aguirre, Haggerty and Linder, 1990; Adigwe, 1993a and b; Clerk and Rutherford, 2000; Voska and Heikkinen, 2000). The major factors that have been identified to be responsible for these misconceptions are poor methods of instruction (Kilbourn, 1992; Schmidt, 1994; Ochonogor, 1999), improper exposure to laboratory activities (Lawton, 1990; Brotherton and Precce, 1996), lack of organizational skills and inadequate exposure to problem-solving procedures.

Perkins (1993) opined that learners may have some alternative conceptions and scientifically acceptable concepts in the same content area in science. Thus, Vosniadou, Dimitrakopoulou & Papademetriou, (2001) described students’ misconceptions as an alternative framework or misinterpretation in their study. Misconceptions are considered as fairly different from scientific views. They are resistant to change with scientific ones and students may reject accepting new ideas. In other words, misconceptions are obstacles to students in learning and meaningfully understanding some concepts in science. Learners often construct their own theories about how the natural world works, prior to formal science education, but their theories are often contrary to those of scientists (Osborne & Freyberg, 2004). Students’ self-constructed conceptions have been referred to as misconceptions, alternative conceptions, preconceptions, naïve conceptions etc (Driver & Easley, 1989 and Demircioglu, Ozmen & Ayas, 1992). Misconception in this work is used to refer to ideas that are not in agreement with accepted scientific ideas. There are various sources of misconceptions, these are; experiences encountered in daily life, lecture method, textbooks, teachers, mismatches between teacher and student knowledge of science, chemical terms that have changed their meaning (Schmidt, Baumgartner and Eybe, 2003). Misconceptions are ubiquitous, resistant to change, persistent and difficult to extinguish even with method fashioned to address them, thereby capable of hampering their subsequent learning (Ben-Zvi, Eylon, & Silberstein, 1986).

Conceptual change is a process of replacing misconceptions with correct concepts. This means helping learners to transform their mental models (internal representations of objects, events and processes learners construct in order to predict and explain phenomena) into the consensus models (the expressed representations used by the scientific community for the same purpose) (Gobert and Buckley, 2004). The change from naïve mental models to consensus models is infrequently straightforward, and many times it goes through intermediate stages which combine parts of both models – a hybrid model (Noh and Scharmann, 2005).

Fisher (2004) & Taber (2001) stated a fundamental dissimilarity between alternative models and consensus models as in the range of their validity while alternative models 2are usually only consistent with the limited experience of the learner, the consensus models are based on the collectively accumulated experience of generations of scientists. The efficiency of consensus models emerges from their consistent ability to predict and explain a vast range of phenomena using a small set of assumptions and rules.

Consequently, learner’s misconceptions should be taken into consideration in the developing of science curricula. Regrettably, many of the present science curricula and textbooks have not addressed the persistence of any misconceptions in chemistry. Hence, it is necessary to find out if guided discovery, demonstration and lecture learning methods could have impacts on the students’ conceptual change, attitude and achievement which will eventually strengthen appropriate attitude and value. These instructional methods will be employed, to find out their individual efficiency by comparing the other two (guided discovery and demonstration) methods with the lecture method. With many countries striving to educate all their citizens, education professionals are seeking research-supported practices that are applicable in classrooms and can facilitate students’ access to the mastering of concepts in chemistry (Sanhez and Roda, 2006).There is therefore the need to introduce instructional methods such as guided discovery and demonstration that may not only create pleasant cooperative atmosphere but enhance manipulative skills as the students interact with the materials and enable the teachers and the learners to be researchers, idea propagators and problem solvers.

Gender is also a crucial variable that will be considered in this study. Gender issue in Nigeria has become an issue of concern in some years back. As schools and educational institutions are more structured, gender difference takes up new and more focus of researchers. Gender relates to the difference in sex (that is, either male or female) and how this quality affects their dispositions and perception toward life and academic activities (Okoh, 2007). (Obioma, & Ohuche, 1986) have shown that gender disparity is still very prevalent in Nigeria and perhaps the whole African countries. This is in line with the finding of Jimoh (2004) that male students performed better than female students in cognitive affect and psychomotor skill achievement. This shows that there is a strong association between gender and response to science education.

Njelita (2008) examined how cooperative class experience in chemistry affects student’s achievement in chemistry. The author found that there was no significant difference in gender achievement between the experimental and control groups, but girls had a significant mean score than boys. Chang & Tsai (2005) investigated the effect of classroom goal structures on children’s goal orientation, mathematics achievement and intrinsic motivation. They also assessed gender effects and the interaction between goal structure and gender. In learning situations, with these variables related to mathematics learning, the results shows no significant gender effects on the variables of goal orientation, mathematics achievement, intrinsic motivation and beliefs about failure. The works of Uhumuaybi and Mamudu (2009) are in support of male students achieving significantly better when compared to female students in science. Buadi (2000) asserts that the difference in gender as it affects students’ academic performance is inconclusive. On this premise, it is pertinent to consider gender as a moderating variable. Its interaction effects with the key instructional methods under study on students’ attitudes, Conceptual change and Achievement.

School location: The term school location connotes the position of the school within the chosen area of study. This may be rural or urban. Rural areas refer to villages and areas away from the local government headquarters, and lacking major amenities like healthcare centres, tarred road, electricity and pipe borne water. On the other hand, urban areas depict areas within the local government headquarters with the key amenities such as healthcare centres, tarred road, electricity and pipe borne water. Owolabi (2006) accentuated that our highly qualified teachers prefer to serve in urban areas than rural areas. It is, therefore, vital to verify if really the treatment is sensitive to location since there are contradictions in the reviewed literatures

A careful analysis of the evidence in the reviewed works on the effects of laboratory instructional methods (guided discovery and demonstration) unveils that laboratory instructional methods could be the main problem on students’ attitude, conceptual change and academic achievement in practical chemistry (acids and bases) which might be a function of their misconceptions. This is traceable to the poor quality of laboratory instructional methods adopted by the chemistry teachers, used to pass their chemistry knowledge to their students. Therefore, this study is expected to empirically document whether the literatures cited earlier on, on the aforementioned teaching methods are still tenable in relation to gender and location in the particular case of senior secondary schools 1 chemistry students in Ahoada West Local Government Area of Rivers state.

Statement of the Problem

Reviewed literatures in science education have revealed that the various instructional methods that have been used in teaching practical chemistry have not improved students’ academic achievements in the subject to any significant extent. This connotes that the most desired scientific and technological knowledge that should be derived from practical chemistry for solving societal problems may not be sustained. The implication of this is that the teaching of practical chemistry does not result in the learners’ understanding of concepts.

Although available evidences indicate that senior secondary school chemistry students have misconceptions in practical chemistry contents but it does not appear that sufficient attempts have been made to unmask the specific areas of students’ misconceptions (Aguire, Haggerty and Linder, 1990; Adigwe, 1993a and b; Clerk and Rutherford, 2000). Also, reviewed literatures have shown that there is a serious decline in the enrollment of students and the few candidates enrolling perform poorly. All these are largely traceable to misconceptions in practical chemistry, which could have emanated from the phobia of acids and bases. Additionally, misconceptions have been shown to be a product of teaching methods. These are the gaps that this work intended to find empirically among grade 10 senior secondary school (SS1) chemistry students in Ahoada West Local Government Area of Rivers State.

The researcher observed from the reviewed literatures that there was the dire need to identify appropriate laboratory teaching methods that would enhance students’ achievement, conceptual change and attitudes to practical chemistry contents (acids and bases). The researcher was interested in finding the relative effects of three laboratory methods (guided discovery and demonstration against lecture method) on students’ attitudes, conceptual change and achievement in practical chemistry contents (acid and base).

Purpose of the study

The main objective of this study is to determine laboratory methods that would enhance students’ attitudes, conceptual change and achievement in practical chemistry contents (acids and bases) in senior secondary school I chemistry.

More specifically the study aims to:

determine the relative effect of treatment (guided discovery and demonstration methods) and control (lecture method) on students’ conceptual change in practical chemistry laboratory activities.
determine the relative effect of treatment and control on students’ achievement in practical chemistry content (acids and bases).
determine the relative effect of treatment and control on students’ attitude to practical chemistry content (acids and bases).

determine the interaction effect of gender and treatment against control on students’ conceptual change in practical chemistry contents (acids and bases).
determine the interaction effect of gender and treatment against control on students’ achievement in acids and bases in practical chemistry.
identify the interaction effect of gender and treatment against control on students’ attitude to practical chemistry content (acids and bases).
determine the interaction effect of location and treatment against control on students’ conceptual change in acids and bases in practical chemistry.
determine the interaction effect of location and treatment against control on students’ achievement in acids and bases in practical chemistry.
determine the interaction effect of location and treatment against control on students’ attitude to acids and bases in practical chemistry.

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will be of huge benefit to the government, curriculum developers and educational policy makers, prospective and practicing chemistry teachers as it will provide vital information on the effectiveness of using laboratory instructional methods (guided discovery and demonstration) against lecture method on students’ attitudes, conceptual change and achievement in practical chemistry in senior secondary schools.

The application of the findings of this study will be of immense help to the government. It will aid in designing in-service training programmes that will provide benchmarks for comparison and gauging programmes progress. It will also be of help as they are taking decisions on national strategies for science education integration at the senior secondary school level. Thus, the data provided by this study will aid in taking concrete action that will facilitate the recommendation of appropriate instructional methods that will be apt for the teaching of certain concepts in practical chemistry. Both the prospective and the practicing science teachers are bound to stimulate more research interest in this area.

Scope of the Study

This study was carried out in Ahoada West Local Government Area of Rivers State. The study was delimited to practical chemistry contents (acids and bases). The content scope of the study includes the concepts of acids and bases. This content is found in SS1 chemistry curriculum. The dependent variables include students’ attitudes, conceptual change and achievement in chemistry practical activities.

Research Questions

In order to guide this study, the following research questions were posed:

What are the relative effects of treatments (guided discovery and demonstration methods) and control (lecture method) on students’ conceptual change in practical chemistry laboratory activities?
What are the relative effects of teaching methods on students’ achievement in practical chemistry contents (acids and bases)?
What are the relative effects of teaching methods on students’ attitude to practical chemistry contents (acids and bases)?
What are the interaction effects of gender and teaching methods on students’ conceptual change in practical chemistry contents (acids and bases)?
What are the interaction effects of gender and teaching methods on students’ achievement in practical chemistry contents (acids and bases)?
What are the interaction effects of gender and teaching methods on students’ attitude to practical chemistry (acids and bases)?
What are the interaction effects of location and teaching methods on students’ conceptual change in practical chemistry contents (acids and bases)?
What are the interaction effects of location and teaching methods on students’ achievement in practical chemistry contents (acids and bases)?
What are the interaction effects of location and teaching methods on students’ attitude to practical chemistry (acids and bases)?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were tested at 5% level of significance to further answer the research questions.

H₀₁: Students’ mean scores in their conceptual change due to teaching methods would not be statistically different (P<0.05).

H_02:Students’ achievement mean scores in practical chemistry would not depend on the teaching methods used in instruction (P<0.05).

H₀₃: Students’ attitude mean scores in practical chemistry (acids and bases) would not depend on the teaching methods used in instruction (P<0.05).

H₀₄: The interaction effect of gender and teaching methods on students’ conceptual change mean scores would not be significantly different (P<0.05).

H₀₅: The interaction effect of gender and teaching methods on students’ achievement mean scores would not be significant (P<0.05).

H₀₆: The interaction effect of gender and teaching methods on students’ attitude mean scores would not be significantly different (P<0.05).

H₀₇: The interaction effect of location and teaching methods on students’ conceptual change mean scores would not be significantly different (P<0.05).

H₀₈: The interaction effect of location and teaching methods on students’ achievement mean scores would not be significantly different (P<0.05).

H₀₉: The interaction effect of location and teaching methods on students’ attitude mean scores would not be significantly different (P<0.05).

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