Full Project – Conflict management strategies and secondary school administrators’ effectiveness in Alimosho Local Government Area, Lagos

Full Project – Conflict management strategies and secondary school administrators’ effectiveness in Alimosho Local Government Area, Lagos

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The literature review presents the framework of the study in addition to a review of empirical studies on conflict management strategies and secondary school administrators’ effectiveness in Alimosho Local Government Area, Lagos. The following are taken into consideration during the course of the study:

 

• The Concept of Conflict Management
• Sources/Causes of Conflict
• Stages of Conflict
• Effects of Conflict
• Conflict Management Techniques/Strategies
• Administrative Effectiveness in Coordinating Teachers
• Theories of Conflict
• Theoretical Models of Conflict
• Summary of the Review

 

The Concept of Conflict Management

The term conflict is relative, depending on the goals and objectives of either the protagonist or supposed antagonist. Nonetheless, it generally has a strong negative commutation by evoking words as opposition, mob action, face- off, anger, aggression etc. Kretiner (2006) however posit that conflicts operate within cooperative contexts. He therefore defines conflicts as a concept which involves incompatible behaviours in which one person (or party) interferes, disrupts or in some other way makes another’s actions less effective. To him, conflict can be destructively competitive or constructively cooperative in nature. The scope however destructively competitive or constructively in nature. The scope however Onyene, (2005) is often determined by the level of interpersonal relationship, maturity of parties involved. In competitive mode, the parties pursue directly opposite goals. Each often mistrust the other’s intention and disbelieve what other party may be agitating for. Often times, management and unions fall within this confusion. Both parties actively avoid constructive dialogue and union falls within this attitude. In sharp contrast, the cooperative conflict is a mutually reinforcing experience that ends up serving the best interest of both parties. Ejiogu (2002) notes that most social conflicts should start and end as with conflict inducing condition involving around joint desires.

In the same vein, Weihrich and Koontz (2000) explain that conflict is an integral part of organisational life, assert may occur within the individual, between individuals, between one individual and a group, and even with group(s) which leads to splinter unit. Ejiogu (2000) agrees not the less with the view and that of Hage (2000) who considered conflict as interest divergence between two opposing parties who on the basis of security of resources, policy differences and desire for control make choices. Organisations are always in strange battle with such inability to reach a consensus which brings about skirmish, battles, disagreement and internal clash. According to Gary (2003) conflict is neither a characteristic of the environment, not of the individual, but it is an output of the interaction of both elements which must not be ignored.

Going by the above descriptions, a situation of conflict recognises the unfavourable climate of relationship existing among individuals on one hand within an organisation as a result of many factors like goal ambiguity , conflict concerted actions, ethnocentric behaviours of either the ruler(s) or the ruled (Ejiogu, 2004).

When properly handled, Oyebade (2009) and Kreiner (2000) argue constructive conflict could produce positive challenges leading to organisational developments such as  fostering of unity, creating new leadership approaches, innovations, understanding and application, interest, creating an opportunity for testing peoples’ capabilities.

They also intone that the destructive conflict result in productivity, low motivation, damage to organisational property, unnecessary loss of lives, waste diversions of attention , and other undesirable behaviours found to be inconsistent with organisational goals.

The management of schools is no more exclusive to physical resources management alone. Individual behavioural especially grievance and/ or conflict should be attended to by educational administration. Poor management of conflict situation in the Nigerian educational institutions may result in the non – attainment of educational goals and objectives. The recognition of conflict as a bad omen to the achievement of educational goal makes it expedient for its consideration in its entirety especially its management. Accomplishment is often hampered by frequent animosity, bickering and fighting many times in rooted in suspicious distrust, ignorance and/ or confused goals. These are some of the organizational conflicts. And whether on admit it or not, conflict is a part of organizational life whether one is in the private or public service organization.  The following are the concepts of conflict management:

1. Win-Lose Approach: The win-lose approach is all too common. People learn the behaviors of destructive conflict early in life – competition, dominance, aggression and defense permeate many of our social relationships from the family to the school playground. The “fixed pie” assumption is made, often incorrectly, that what one party gains, the other loses. The strategy is thus to force the other side to capitulate. Sometimes, this is done through socially acceptable mechanisms such as majority vote, the authority of the leader, or the determination of a judge. Sometimes, it involves secret strategies, threat, innuendo – whatever works is acceptable, i.e. the ends justify the means. There is often a strong we-they distinction accompanied by the classic symptoms of intergroup conflict. The valued outcome is to have a victor who is superior, and a vanquished who withdraws in shame, but who prepares very carefully for the next round. In the long run, everyone loses.

 

1. Lose-lose strategy: The lose-lose strategy is exemplified by smoothing over conflict or by reaching the simplest of compromises. In neither case is the creative potential of productive conflict resolution realized or explored. Disagreement is seen as inevitable, so therefore why not split the difference or smooth over difficulties in as painless a way as possible?. Sometimes, this is indeed the reality of the situation, and the costs are less than in the win-lose approach, at least for the loser. Each party gets some of what it wants, and resigns itself to partial satisfaction. Neither side is aware that by confronting the conflict fully and cooperatively they might have created a more satisfying solution or the parties may realistically use this approach to divide limited resources or to forestall a win-lose escalation and outcome.

 

iii. Win-Win Approach: The win-win approach is a conscious and systematic attempt to maximize the goals of both parties through collaborative problem solving. The conflict is seen as a problem to be solved rather than a war to be won. The important distinction is we (both parties) versus the problem, rather than we (one party) versus they (the other party). This method focuses on the needs and constraints of both parties rather than emphasizing strategies designed to conquer. Full problem definition and analysis and development of alternatives precedes consensus decisions on mutually agreeable solutions. The parties work toward common and super ordinate goals, i.e. ones that can only be attained by both parties pulling together. There is an emphasis on the quality of the long term relationships between the parties, rather than short term accommodations. Communication is open and direct rather than secretive and calculating.

Threat and coercion are proscribed. The assumption is made that integrative agreements are possible given the full range of resources existing in the relationship. Attitudes and behaviors are directed toward an increase of trust and acceptance rather than an escalation of suspicion and hostility. The win-win approach requires a very high degree of patience and skill in human relations and problem solving.

Sources of Conflict

One of the early theorists on conflict, Katz (2011), created a typology that distinguishes three main sources of conflict: economic, value, and power.

1. Economic conflict: Economic conflict involves competing motives to attain scarce resources. Each party are directed toward maximizing its gain. Union and management conflict often has as one of its sources the incompatible goals of how to slice up the “economic pie”.

 

1. Value conflict: Value conflict involves incompatibility in ways of life, ideologies – the preferences, principles and practices that people believe in. International conflict (e.g., the Cold War) often has a strong value component, wherein each side asserts the rightness and superiority of its way of life and its political-economic system.

 

iii. Power conflict: Power conflict occurs when each party wishes to maintain or maximize the amount of influence that it exerts in the relationship and the social setting. It is impossible for one party to be stronger without the other being weaker, at least in terms of direct influence over each other. Thus, a power struggle ensues which usually ends in a victory and defeat, or in a “stand-off” with a continuing state of tension. Power conflicts can occur between individuals, between groups or between nations, whenever one or both parties choose to take a power approach to the relationship. Power also enters into all conflict since the parties are attempting to control each other.

 

Causes of Conflict

Deutsch (2003) states that conflicts generally concern four types of issues. First, conflict can concern issues on control over resources which are perceived to be non-shareable, such as space, money, property, power, prestige, food, and so forth. Second, conflict can also arise over preferences and nuisances, which means that the activities or tastes of one person or group impinge upon another’s preferences, sensitivities, or sensibilities. Third, values and beliefs can induce conflict. The claim that certain values should dominate or be applied in general, even by those who hold different values, can cause conflict. Beliefs are about what one perceives to be reality. If the perception of reality of one person differs from that of another person, this can cause conflict. Finally, the relationship between parties can evoke conflict when, for example, two people have opposing views and desires in their relationship (Deutsch, 2013).

 

According to Filley (2005), there are several conditions which can increase the occurrence of conflict in social relationships: ambiguity of the limits each party’s jurisdiction, conflicting interests, separation of parties from each other either physically or with respect to time which causes communication barriers, dependency of one party upon the other, parties wanting to make joint decisions, a need for consensus, imposing behaviour regulation on one of the parties, and the presence of unresolved prior conflict. These conditions may not always lead directly to conflict, but they can create opportunities for conflict to arise.

 

There are several processes which can cause a conflict to escalate into a destructive conflict. Competitive processes in an attempt to win the conflict can cause the communication between the disputing parties to be unreliable and impoverished. It also leads to a suspicious and hostile attitude, and it stimulates the view that the solution of the conflict can only be imposed by one side or the other. Processes of misperception and biases in perception cause an inaccurate image of the actual state of affairs and can transform a conflict into a competitive struggle. Processes of commitment to a position or opinion, as a result of pressures for cognitive and social consistency (also known as cognitive dissonance), can cause intensification of conflict because one’s actions have to be justified to oneself and to others (Deutsch, 2013). Forces that can sustain conflict are trained incapacities, climate, power, and face-saving behaviours (McFarland, 2002).

 

According to Johnson and Johnson (2006) there is not enough information about the specific events that trigger conflict and the barriers that prevent it from occurring. There are not many studies about conflict in schools that, for example, examine the factors that influence aggressive behaviour, although is generally agreed upon that the psychological experience of arousal contributes strongly to aggression, which can evoke destructive conflicts. Therefore, it seems important for educators to also examine the possible factors that induce aggression in schools such as frustration and anger among students, and also factors like crowding, temperature and the presence of aggressive individuals who are perceived as role models (Johnson & Johnson, 2006).  The following are the causes of conflict in a school environment:

• A Clash of Personalities: A clash of personalities occurs when an intense and highly energetic teacher has to work in the same environment with a slower and less intense teacher. In this case, the one who is a hard worker becomes irritated by the sloppiness and laziness of the colleague.
• Personal Value: This becomes a cause of conflict due to diverging ideas or different perceptions of the same situation (Peterson, 2001). The difference in perception results in different people attaching different meaning to stimuli. Resolving value conflict does not mean that the disputants must change or agree on their values, but a mutual acknowledgement that each person views the situation differently is the first step.
• Limited Resources: In most organization, resources are scarce and limited, which leads to individuals and groups to scramble or compete for their share (Hoban, 2004). This normally occurs when different parties have different priorities over scarce resource management and policy development. They involve a combination of economic, value and power sources. This is normally beyond the traditional management system.
• Departmentalization and Specialization: Most organizations are divided into separate departments with specialized functions. Van Deventer and Kruger (2003) and Hoban (2004) argued that, because of familiarity with the manner in which they undertake their activities, departments tend to turn inwards and concentrate on the achievements of their own aims. This type of conflict may involve turf problems and overlapping responsibilities (Legotlo, Teu, & Matshidiso, 2003).

Stages of Conflict

Competitive: At the competitive level, a person takes a position and sticks to it. Company owners and upper management often negotiate from a competitive level of conflict resolution. With the competitive level, the leader states what he wants. The leader should be persuasive and have the knowledge to back up the request. This style is useful for fast decisions or when there is a lot of resistance to change. If not careful, the person who uses this level of conflict resolution may offend others.

Collaborative: At the collaborative level, all ideas are deemed important and considered. Collaboration takes a look at all of the needs and opinions of a situation and tries to come up with a solution that uses the best of those ideas. Kilmann, in his book “Introduction to Conflict and Teams: Enhancing Team Performance Using the TKI,” recommends using this style when there is a history of extreme conflict in a group.

 

Compromising: The compromising level accomplishes a solution that keeps everyone partly happy. However, each person will still need to give up something to come to a compromise. Kilmann recommends the compromising level for situations where a deadline is knocking at the door and the conflict prevents completing a project.

 

Accommodating : Use an accommodating level in situations where the outcome is not vital, but solving the conflict is. Using this style means the leader gives up his own stance on a situation and allows others their way. It can help bring peace to a volatile situation and build goodwill, so when management must use a different level, employees are open to a more assertive tone.

Avoiding: At the avoiding level, the person simply refuses to make a decision. Kilmann warns that this is a particularly weak response to conflict but that it can be appropriate in situations where the outcome does not matter. Another time to use this level is when there is a person better suited to make the decision but he needs incentive to step into a leadership role.

 

Effects of Conflict

Many people associate conflict with fighting, struggle, and violence. In this matter, it is important to be aware of the difference between conflict issue and conflict behaviour (Van der Vliert, 2007). A conflict certainly contains some kind of social behaviour, but the conflict itself is not the same as its reaction towards it. Conflict behaviour leads to certain results, and the value of those results can be either favorable or unfavorable (Filley, 2005). Unfavorable results can be agitation, aggression, or violence. In schools, unfavorable results of poorly managed conflicts may include lower achievement and detrimental effects on individual students, such as stress, and challenges to self-esteem and self-efficacy (Johnson & Johnson, 2006).

 

Contrary to what many people think, conflict can also have favorable results. For example, it can stimulate group cohesiveness: conflict demarcates groups from one another and as such helps to establish group and personal identities. External conflict with an other group therefore fosters internal cohesiveness (Deutsch, 2003). Conflict also supports the balance of power between parties, stimulates creative approaches to problem solving, leads to the diffusion of more serious conflict by airing and handling problems in time and stimulates a search for new facts or solutions which fosters creativity (Deutsch, 2003). For children and teenagers, conflict with and detachment from parents is necessary for encouraging individuation, realigning relationships, and reducing anxieties (Johnson & Johnson, 2006). But above all, conflict is mainly a motor for personal and social change. For instance, conflict can help to establish social change by revitalizing existing norms and to contribute to the emergence of new norms (Filley, 2005). In the Netherlands, for example, the increase of immigrants in the last couple of decades has forced society to reexamine their norms about immigration.

 

The power to establish personal change through conflict is especially helpful in school settings; development through intrapersonal conflict is a very common subject among cognitive theorists. The theory of Jean Piaget (2009) on cognitive development, for example, emphasizes the role of conflict through equilibrium in the development of new cognitive structures (Driscoll, 2005). According to this theory, cognitive conflict results in internal disequilibrium and the inability to assimilate current experiences into existing cognitive structures. This creates the need to organize the learner’s cognitive structures in a new way in which s/he moves from one stage of cognitive reasoning to another (Johnson & Johnson, 2005). Conflict is consequently the mechanism by which children and adolescents acquire new cognitive structures, develop new perspectives and shift to new stages of reasoning which result in changes in behaviour toward parents and peers (Johnson & Johnson, 2006).

Closely resembling the theory of Jean Piaget is the idea of conceptual change in which educators try to change the mental concepts of learners by creating dissatisfaction with an existing concept, such as in the example of the child who has two contrasting ideas about the world. This process is induced by, for instance, exposing the learner to contrasting analogies, metaphors, and physical models (Driscoll, 2005). Intrapersonal conflict is also an important part in Jerome  (2001) ideas on discovery learning. Bruner emphasizes that in discovery learning it is important to present the learner with materials or events which are discrepant to what s/he or she already knows (Driscoll, 2005; Johnson & Johnson, 2005). This will lead to cognitive conflict, which sets the stage for discovery by stimulating the learner to explore contrasts (Driscoll, 2005).

Interpersonal conflicts can have benefits for schools as well. Interpersonal conflict through the use of controversy can result in positive relationships among students as well as increased motivation to learn, enjoyment of the instructional experience, and perceptions of encouragement and support among students (Johnson & Johnson, 2005). Conflicts between students in general focus attention on problems to be solved, clarify disputants’ identity and values, reveal how disputants need to change, create curiosity, and stimulate higher quality problem solving in a group (Johnson & Johnson, 2004).

 

Although there may be concerns among educators about the negative outcomes of conflicts, such as aggression and violence, conflict itself is not a negative process. It is an essential part of life and a necessary and inevitable aspect in human and social development (Johnson & Johnson, 2006). It is therefore important not to avoid conflict in schools, but to stimulate the possible positive outcomes and to create a positive attitude towards conflict.

Conflict Management Techniques/Strategies

One approach to conflict management is conflict prevention. Conflict prevention aims at preventing unnecessary conflict. Educational programs which focus on conflict prevention are designed to teach students what conflict is, offer alternatives to violent conflict management, and give attention to aspects which can influence the occurrence and the escalation of conflict, such as social skills, empathy training, stress and anger management, attitudes about conflicts, and bias awareness (Johnson & Johnson, 2006).

Research shows that there are several different ways to apply conflict management education and that there are several preconditions to make conflict management work. A number of ways to realize conflict resolution education are discussed below.

 

1. Negotiation: Two well-known forms of conflict resolution education are negotiation and mediation. These two processes are often combined in educational programs in order for students to be capable of resolving their own conflicts (negotiation) and help with the conflicts of others (mediation). Negotiation logically precedes mediation because negotiation skills are necessary for the realization of a constructive mediation process.

 

Negotiation, as stated earlier, entails the process by which persons who want to come to an agreement try to work out a settlement (Johnson & Johnson, 2006). This can be realized through a distributive or an integrative approach. The integrative approach, or integrative problem-solving negotiation, is perceived to be the best strategy to resolve a conflict, because disputants then work together to create an agreement that benefits everyone involved. Therefore, most negotiation programs focus on integrative negotiation procedures.

 

1. Mediation and peer mediation: Mediation is the process in which an unbiased third party (the mediator) assists disputants to negotiate an integrative resolution to their conflict. Peer mediation is mediation in which the third party is a peer of the disputants. The mediation procedure consists of the following steps. First, when the mediator notices a conflict, he ends the hostilities and gives the disputants time to cool off. Second, the mediator establishes each participant’s voluntary and independent consent to participate and to keep the proceedings confidential. The mediator also explains the procedure of the mediation process. Third, the mediator facilitates the negotiation process by assisting the participants to communicate together during the negotiation steps: defining the conflict, exchanging reasons, reversing perspectives, inventing options and reaching an agreement. In the last step, the mediator formalizes the agreement and closes the mediation process (Bickmore, 2002; Johnson & Johnson, 2004). According to Clark (2004), cooperation, social equity, and open communication and mutual respect are essential elements to achieve a constructive solution to a conflict. Consequently, he believes that necessary skills for mediators include the ability to encourage disputants to cooperate with each other, the ability to maintain a norm of equity between the parties, and identifying clear and specific issues to clarify the nature of the conflict and prohibiting accusations, labeling, and insults (Clark, 2004).

 

iii. Controversy: David Johnson and Roger Johnson support the use of controversy in the classroom, which is another means to implement conflict resolution in schools. Controversy, as stated earlier, exists when one person’s ideas, information, conclusions, theories, or opinions are incompatible with those of another person, and both seek to reach an agreement (Johnson & Johnson, 2006). The controversy process entails five steps: (1) students prepare positions on an academic issue by organizing relevant information and deriving conclusions; (2) students present and advocate these positions and other students, in turn, advocate opposing positions; (3) students engage in an open discussion by continuing to advocate their own positions, attempting to refute the opposing positions, and rebutting others’ attacks; (4) students reverse perspectives and present the opposing position as persuasively and completely as possible, and (5) students create a synthesis based on a reconceptualization  that integrates both perspectives (Johnson & Johnson, 2004 and Smith, 2006).

1. Cooperative Problem-Solving Strategy: When using this style, people try to find a solution that will help them meet their interests and help everyone maintain good relationships. Dolphins are an example of this style. They whistle and click to communicate with each other to catch food cooperatively and summon help. But, they may choose other styles depending on the situation.

 

1. Competing: Choosing this style means that a person is putting his/her interest before anyone else’s interests. Some people who use this style try so hard to get what they want irrespective of whether or not they ruin the friendship. A lion is a symbol of this style. For example, when the lion’s family is hungry, the lion may use its strength and loud roar to get the food, because it is important for the family.

The administrators in playing his role as a leader of the school should be able to have a good conflict management method in order to bring  effectiveness in this discharging of his duties. For the administrator in communicating with the teaching staff must use the right communication channel. If the administrator noticed that there is good communication channel in the school he may decide to call for an emergency meeting to clarify the issues.

The teachers on their own side should be able to manage the conflict that comes up in the school. For instance, if a teacher has a case in his case that he cannot resolve alone, he should involve the other teachers to help him settle the problem. By so doing the objectives of the school will be achieved when there is peace and all concerned is working hard. The only way to develop these is by self control and practice.

Mohammed (2003) has recognized three leadership styles which the principal can use in settling disputes or conflict among the members of the staff. Thus, there are autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire approach. In autocratic approach, only the leader/principal takes decision. He does not consult any of his teachers before taking any decision. In the democratic approach, the leader/principal seeks the suggestion of his teachers in decision making. There is unilateral agreement which is binding on the members or the staff. In the laissez-faire approach, the principal calls for the teachers’ decision before hand. This means that the teacher are allowed to decide things by themselves.

Administrative Effectiveness in Coordinating Teachers

Administrative effectiveness connotes their capacity to coordinate much often conflicting social energy in a secondary school. These are the administrative effectiveness in secondary school:

1. Discipline and Staff Motivation: Discipline and staff motivation does not only mean enticing our staff with financial reward, but it may mean sharing mutual understanding in terms of accepting your staff suggestion during meetings.
2. Managing School Finance: It means prudent spending of school finance or funds in order to achieve goals or objectives of education within his/her jurisdiction. The administrator needs to know how to disburse funds to various sectors in the school  in areas  like teaching and learning materials, infrastructures and equipment, etc.

 

1. Interpersonal Relationship: The means the interpersonal relationship between the administrators and the staff subordinates in order to achieve an administrative effectiveness. This may influence productivity. When there is cordial relationship between the leader and his subordinate, there will be conducive working climate. The administrator will respect the subordinate while the subordinate will also respect the administrator.
2. Managing Human and Material Resources: The administrators needs to manage human and material resources in order to achieve predetermined objectives of the education system. The administrator needs to have proper allocation of resources towards appropriate initiative such as purchase of school equipment and assets.

 

2. Operating Factors: There are other operational factors that determine the effectiveness of a school’s administration, including the class sizes, staff to pupil ratios, student workloads, school programs and resource allocation and usage. An effective administration is one that is able to keep the sizes of the class manageable, has a reasonable teacher to student ratio and allocates resources towards appropriate initiatives such as purchase of school equipment and assets. Implementing and successfully managing a number of school programs such as sports tournaments, and guidance and counseling. Maintaining a strong positive culture and traditions is also evidence of effective school administration.

 

6. Staff productivity. The productivity of staff members and especially teachers is a strong indicator of administrative effectiveness. An effective administrator will have an incredible mechanism to asses teacher output and provide them with feedback on the areas in which they could improve. They administration can further facilitate productivity through implementation of professional staff development where teachers are supported in continuously improving their knowledge and skills and creating a community of teachers to promote an integrated effort.

Inter-governmental relation:  public educational institutions have their supervising ministries or parastals. For instance, the Nigeria universities are supervised by the National Universities Commission (NUC), while the Colleges of Education are supervised by the  National Commission For Colleges of Education (NCCE). The state ministries of education is supervised by the Ministry of Education at various levels. The important implication of this control is seen in the limitation of the power of the school management at the institutional level in conflict management capacity. In a situations are subordinate to higher authorities that have power to meddle in their internal affairs, it puts a check on the capacity and  capability of the management of educational institutions to take final decision that relates to conflict management. Final clearance must be obtained from the higher authority before implementation.

Professional association/Pressure Group: this group usually exist to protect the interest of their members. In the course of doing this, disputes occur. Association or union like N.U.T, ASSU and NANS among other existing in educational institutions fight for their right and protect the interest of their ,members corporately or individually. Some of these pressure groups see conflict with the school management as an achievement and therefore may deliberately toe a hard-line position for the sustenance of their grievance.

Theories of Conflict

Conflict theory is most commonly associated with Marxism, but as a reaction to functionalism and the positivist method may also be associated with number of other perspectives, including:

Conflict is defined as disagreement between individuals. It can vary from a mild disagreement to a win-or-lose, emotion-packed, confrontation (Kirchoff and Adams, 2002).

3. The traditional theory is based on the assumption that conflicts are bad, are caused by trouble makers, and should be subdued.
4. Contemporary theory recognizes that conflicts between human beings are unavoidable. They emerge as a natural result of change and can be beneficial to the organization, if managed efficiently. Current theory (Kirchoff and Adams, 2002) considers innovation as a mechanism for bringing together various ideas and viewpoints into a new and different fusion. An atmosphere of tension, and hence conflict, is thus essential in any organization committed to developing or working with new ideas.
5. Nomothetic-Idiographic Theory of Conflict: Another approach in theoretical framework of study of conflict is the Nomothetic-idiographic theory of conflict. According to Morphet, Johns & Reller (2000), this theory was postulated by Getzel & Buba. The theory is based on the assumption that the task-achievement of a social system irrespective of the nature of the task requires the combined efforts of a number of people with varying functions and responsibilities whose positions in the social system are usually hierarchically (vertically) arranged to establish the relationships between the superior and the subordinates.

 

In Education, the term social system is referred to the school organization. The positions needed to make teaching and learning take place are hierarchically structured. This is designed to indicate who gives orders and to whom. As Edem (2008) puts it, at the top of the hierarchy is the National or State Executive Council. Its function is to determine educational policies. After the Executive Council is the Ministry of Education in that descending order of rank.

 

Conflicts can occur as these groups of individuals that make up the three institutionalized units interact with each other. Confirming to this is Ezegbe (2007) who stated that conflict promoting factors affect each other. Individual characteristics are capable of instigating and intensifying interaction patterns and vice-versa. He maintained that conflicts are produced from combination of individual characteristics and interaction patterns. Getzel and guba cited in Oraemesi (2008) conceive the educational system as having nomothetic an idiographic dimension.

Theories and Models Of Conflict

Dual concern model

The dual concern model of conflict resolution is a conceptual perspective that assumes individuals’ preferred method of dealing with conflict is based on two underlying themes or dimensions: concern for self (assertiveness) and concern for others (empathy).

According to the model, group members balance their concern for satisfying personal needs and interests with their concern for satisfying the needs and interests of others in different ways. The intersection of these two dimensions ultimately leads individuals towards exhibiting different styles of conflict resolution. The dual model identifies five conflict resolution styles/strategies that individuals may use depending on their dispositions toward pro-self or pro-social goals.

Avoidance conflict style

Characterized by joking, changing or avoiding the topic, or even denying that a problem exists, the conflict avoidance style is used when an individual has no interest in dealing with the other party, when one is uncomfortable with conflict, or due to cultural contexts. During conflict, these avoiders adopt a “wait and see” attitude, often allowing conflict to phase out on its own without any personal involvement. By neglecting to address high-conflict situations, avoiders risk allowing problems to fester out of control.

 

Yielding conflict style

In contrast, yielding or “accommodating” conflict styles are characterized by a high level of concern for others and a low level of concern for oneself. This passive pro-social approach emerges when individuals derive personal satisfaction from meeting the needs of others and have a general concern for maintaining stable, positive social relationships. When faced with conflict, individuals with a yielding conflict style tend to give into others’ demands out of respect for the social relationship.

 

Competitive conflict style

The competitive or “fighting” conflict style maximizes individual assertiveness (i.e., concern for self) and minimizes empathy (i.e., concern for others). Groups consisting of competitive members generally enjoy seeking domination over others, and typically see conflict as a “win or lose” predicament. Fighters tend to force others to accept their personal views by employing competitive power tactics (arguments, insults, accusations, violence, etc.) that foster feelings of intimidation (Morrill, 2005).

 

Cooperation conflict style

Characterized by an active concern for both pro-social and pro-self behavior, the cooperation conflict style is typically used when an individual has elevated interests in their own outcomes as well as in the outcomes of others. During conflict, cooperators collaborate with others in an effort to find an amicable solution that satisfies all parties involved in the conflict. Individuals using this type of conflict style tend to be both highly assertive and highly empathetic. By seeing conflict as a creative opportunity, collaborators willingly invest time and resources into finding a “win-win” solution. According to the literature on conflict resolution, a cooperative conflict resolution style is recommended above all others.

 

Conciliation conflict style

The conciliation or “compromising” conflict style is typical of individuals who possess an intermediate level of concern for both personal and others’ outcomes. Compromisers value fairness and, in doing so, anticipate mutual give-and-take interactions. By accepting some demands put forth by others, compromisers believe this agreeableness will encourage others to meet them halfway, thus promoting conflict resolution. This conflict style can be considered an extension of both “yielding” and “cooperative” strategies.

 

Summary of the Review

Conflict happens when two different groups perceive some incompatibility between themselves, which can lead to conflict. How a manager reacts and deals with that conflict will have a large impact on the outcome. There are many different strategies to deal with conflict.

Many researchers and authorities state that conflict management needs to be a long term project for learners to effectively learn constructive conflict management. One workshop or lesson or even a series of lessons is not sufficient to create sustaining effects. Learners need repeated opportunities to practice the procedures and skills in order to over learn the required negotiation and mediation procedures. Over learning will create automatic habit patterns which, as stated earlier, are crucial when the person is confronted with a conflict.

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